Annotations on Java types

JSR 308 working document
Michael D. Ernst
mernst@csail.mit.edu
August 29, 2008

The JSR 308 webpage is https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/. It contains the latest version of this document, along with other information such as links to the reference implementation and sample annotation processors.

This document is available in PDF format at https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/specification/java-annotation-design.pdf.

Contents

1  Introduction

JSR 308 extends Java's annotation system [Blo04] so that annotations may appear on nearly any use of a type. (By contrast, Java SE 6 permits annotations only on class/method/field/variable declarations; JSR 308 is backward-compatible and continues to permit those annotations.) Such a generalization removes limitations of Java's annotation system, and it enables new uses of annotations. This proposal also notes a few other possible extensions to annotations (see Section D).

This document specifies the syntax of extended Java annotations, but it makes no commitment as to their semantics. As with Java's existing annotations [Blo04], the semantics is dependent on annotation processors (compiler plug-ins), and not every annotation is necessarily sensible in every location where it is syntactically permitted to appear. This proposal is compatible with existing annotations, such as those specified in JSR 250, “Common Annotations for the Java Platform” [Mor06], and proposed annotations, such as those to be specified in JSR 305, “Annotations for Software Defect Detection” [Pug06]. (For a comparison of JSR 305 and JSR 308, see Section D.3.3.)

This proposal does not change the compile-time, load-time, or run-time semantics of Java. It does not change the abilities of Java annotation processors as defined in JSR 269 [Dar06]. The proposal merely makes annotations more general — and thus more useful for their current purposes, and also usable for new purposes that are compatible with the original vision for annotations [Blo04].

This document has two parts: a normative part and a non-normative part. The normative part specifies the changes to the Java language syntax (Sections 2 and 5), the Java toolset (Section 3), and the class file format (Section 4).

The non-normative part consists of appendices that discuss and explain the specification or deal with logistical issues. It motivates annotations on types by presenting one possible use, type qualifiers (Appendix A). It gives examples of and further motivation for the Java syntax changes (Appendix B) and lists tools that must be updated to accommodate the Java and class file modifications (Appendix C). Appendix D lists other possible extensions to Java annotations, some of which are within the scope of JSR 308 (and might be included in a future revision) and some of which are not. The document concludes with logistical matters relating to incorporation in the Sun JDK (Section E) and related work (Section F).

2  Java language syntax extensions

2.1  Source locations for annotations on types

In Java SE 6, annotations can be written only on method parameters and the declarations of packages, classes, methods, fields, and local variables. JSR 308 extends Java to allow annotations on any use of a type. JSR 308 uses a simple prefix syntax for type annotations, with an exception for receiver types.

  1. A type annotation appears before the type, as in @NonNull String.
  2. The annotation on a given array level prefixes the brackets that introduce that level. To declare a a non-empty array of English-language strings, write @English String @NonEmpty []. The varargs syntax ... is treated analogously to array brackets and may also be prefixed by an annotation.
  3. An annotation on the type of a method receiver (this) appears just after the parameter list (before any throws clause).

Section B.1 contains examples of the annotation syntax.

2.2  Java language grammar changes

This section summarizes the Java language grammar changes, which correspond to the three rules of Section 2.1. Section 5 shows the grammar changes in detail. Additions are underlined.

  1. Any Type may be prefixed by [Annotations]:
    Type:
        [Annotations] Identifier [TypeArguments] {. Identifier [TypeArguments]} {[]}
        [Annotations] BasicType
  2. To permit annotations on levels of an array (in declarations, not constructors), change “{[]}” to “{[Annotations] []}”. (This was abstracted out as “BracketsOpt” in the 2nd edition of the JLS [GJSB00].) For example:
    Type:
        [Annotations] Identifier [TypeArguments]{ . Identifier [TypeArguments]} {[Annotations] []}
        [Annotations] BasicType

    Also permit annotations on varargs (...):

    FormalParameterDeclsRest:
        VariableDeclaratorId [, FormalParameterDecls]
        [Annotations] ... VariableDeclaratorId
  3. Annotations may appear on the receiver type by changing uses of “FormalParameters” (in all 5 places it appears in the grammar) to “FormalParameters [Annotations]”. For example:
    VoidMethodDeclaratorRest:
        FormalParameters [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] ( MethodBody | ; )

2.3  Target meta-annotation for type annotations

Java uses the @Target meta-annotation as a machine-checked way of expressing where an annotation is intended to appear. JSR 308 uses ElementType.TYPE_USE to indicate a type annotation:

  @Target(ElementType.TYPE_USE)
  public @interface NonNull { ... }

An annotation that is meta-annotated with @Target(ElementType.TYPE_USE) may appear on uses of a type. ElementType.TYPE_USE is new in JSR 308, and is distinct from the existing ElementType.TYPE enum element of Java SE 6, which indicates that an annotation may appear on a type declaration.

The compiler applies an annotation to every target that is consistent with its meta-annotation. The order of annotations is not used to disambiguate. As in Java SE 6, the compiler issues an error if a programmer places an annotation in a location not permitted by its Target meta-annotation.

3  Compiler modifications

When generating .class files, the compiler must emit the attributes described in Section 4.

The compiler is required to preserve annotations in the class file. More precisely, if a programmer places an annotation (with class file or runtime retention) on the type of an expression, and that expression is represented in the compiled class file, then the annotation must be present, in the compiled class file, on the type of the compiled representation of the expression. If the compiler optimizes away an expression, then it may also optimize away the annotation. (Exception: when a type cast is optimized away without optimizing away its argument, the annotation remains on the argument; see Section 4.1.1.)

The compiler sometimes creates new methods that did not appear in the source code, and that do nothing but call an existing method. In this case, annotations should be copied from the method being invoked. Two examples are bridge methods (an implementation strategy used when the erased signature of the actual method being invoked differs from that of the compile-time method declaration [GJSB05, §15.12.4.5]) and anonymous constructors [GJSB05, §15.9.5.1]. (As of Java SE 6, javac does not copy/transfer any annotations from original methods to the compiler-generated methods; that is probably a bug in javac. It is, however, perhaps debatable whether all annotations should be copied.)

4  Class file format extensions

The class file format represents the type of every variable and expression in a Java class, including all temporaries and values stored on the stack. (Sometimes the representation is explicit, and sometimes it is implicit.) Since JSR 308 permits annotations to be added to a type, the class file format should be updated to continue to represent the full, annotated type of each expression.

More pragmatically, Java annotations must be stored in the class file for two reasons. First, annotated signatures (public members) must be available to tools that read class files. For example, a type-checking compiler plug-in [Dar06] needs to read annotations when compiling a client of the class file. Second, annotated method bodies must be present to permit checking the class file against the annotations. This is necessary to give confidence in an entire program, since its parts (class files) may originate from any source. Otherwise, it would be necessary to simply trust annotated classes of unknown provenance [BHP]. (A third non-goal is providing reflective access within method bodies.)

This document proposes conventions for storing the annotations described in Section 2, as well as for storing local variable annotations, which are permitted in Java syntax but currently discarded by the compiler. Class files already store annotations in the form of “attributes” [Blo04, LY]. JVMs ignore unknown attributes. For backward compatibility, JSR 308 uses new attributes for storing the type annotations. In other words, JSR 308 merely reserves the names of a few attributes and specifies their layout. JSR 308 does not alter the way that existing annotations on classes, methods, method parameters, and fields are stored in the class file. JSR 308 mandates no changes to the processing of existing annotation locations; in the absence of other changes to the class file format, class files generated from programs that use no new annotations will be identical to those generated by a standard Java SE 6 compiler. Furthermore, the bytecode array will be identical between two programs that differ only in their annotations. Attributes have no effect on the bytecode array, because they exist outside it; however, they can represent properties of it by referring to the bytecode (including specific instructions, or bytecode offsets).

In Java SE 6, annotations are stored in the class file in attributes of the classes, fields, or methods they target. Attributes are sections of the class file that associate data with a program element (a method's bytecodes, for instance, are stored in a Code attribute). The RuntimeVisibleAnnotations attribute is used for annotations that are accessible at runtime using reflection, and the RuntimeInvisibleAnnotations attribute is used for annotations that are not accessible at runtime. These attributes contain arrays of annotation structure elements, which in turn contain arrays of element_value pairs. The element_value pairs store the names and values of an annotation's arguments.

JSR 308 introduces two new attributes: RuntimeVisibleTypeAnnotations and RuntimeInvisibleTypeAnnotations. These attributes are structurally identical to the RuntimeVisibleAnnotations and RuntimeInvisibleAnnotations attributes described above with one exception: rather than an array of annotation elements, RuntimeVisibleTypeAnnotations and RuntimeInvisibleTypeAnnotations contain an array of extended_annotation elements, which are described in Section 4.1 below.

The Runtime[In]visibleTypeAnnotations attributes store annotations written in the new locations described in Section 2, and on local variables. For annotations on the type of a field, the field_info structure (see JVMS3 §4.6) corresponding to that field stores the Runtime[In]visibleTypeAnnotations attributes. For annotations on types in method signatures or bodies, the method_info structure (see JVMS3 §4.7) that corresponds to the annotations' containing method stores the Runtime[In]visibleTypeAnnotations attributes. For annotations on class type parameter bounds and class extends/implements types, the attributes structure (see JVMS3 §4.2) stores the Runtime[In]visibleTypeAnnotations attributes.

TODO: In Java SE 6, the class file stores the types of elements on the stack; this eliminates the need for byte code verification to to perform type inference for local variables and stack elements. The class file format should similarly store the annotations on those types, to aid in annotation verification in class files.

4.1  The extended_annotation structure

The extended_annotation structure has the following format, which adds target_type and reference_info to the annotation structure defined in JVMS3 §4.8.15:

extended_annotation {
    u2 type_index;
    u2 num_element_value_pairs;
    {
        u2 element_name_index;
        element_value value;
    } element_value_pairs[num_element_value_pairs];
    u1 target_type;    // new in JSR 308: where the annotation appears
    {
        ...
    } reference_info;  // new in JSR 308: where the annotation appears
}

We briefly recap the fields of annotation, which are described in in JVMS3 §4.8.15.

Compared to annotation, the extended_annotation structure contains two additional fields. These fields implement a discriminated (tagged) union type: field target_type is the tag, and its value determines the size and contents of reference_info (which sometimes has zero size).

4.1.1  The target_type field

The target_type field denotes the type of program element that the annotation targets. As described above, annotations in any of the following locations are written to Runtime[In]visibleTypeAnnotations attributes in the class file:

The corresponding values for each of these cases are shown in Figure 1. Some locations are assigned numbers even though annotations in those locations are prohibited or are actually written to Runtime[In]visibleAnnotations or Runtime[In]visibleParameterAnnotations. While those locations will never appear in a target_type field, including them in the enumeration may be convenient for software that processes extended annotations. They are marked * in Figure 1.


Annotation targettarget_type value
method receiver0x06
method receiver generic/array0x07*
method return type0x0A*
method return type generic/array0x0B
method parameter0x0C*
method parameter generic/array0x0D
field0x0E*
field generic/array0x0F
class type parameter bound0x10
class type parameter bound generic/array0x11
method type parameter bound0x12
method type parameter bound generic/array0x13
class extends/implements0x14
class extends/implements generic/array0x15
exception type in throws0x16
exception type in throws generic/array0x17*
wildcard bound0x1C
wildcard bound generic/array0x1D
method type parameter0x20
method type parameter generic/array0x21*
typecast0x00
typecast generic/array0x01
type test (instanceof)0x02
type test (instanceof) generic/array0x03
object creation (new)0x04
object creation (new) generic/array0x05
local variable0x08
local variable generic/array0x09
type argument in constructor call0x18
type argument in constructor call generic/array0x19
type argument in method call0x1A
type argument in method call generic/array0x1B
class literal0x1E
class literal generic/array0x1F*
Figure 1: Values of target_type for each possible target of a type annotation. Enumeration elements marked * will never appear in a target_type field but are included for completeness and convenience for annotation processors. Ordinary Java annotations on declarations are not included, because they appear in annotation, not extended_annotation, attributes in the class file. Table elements such as local variable, method parameter, and field refer to the declaration, not the use, of such elements. The top half of the table contains targets that may appear on classes and members — places that annotations already appear in the class file in Java SE 6. The bottom half of the table contains targets that only appear inside method bodies, where annotations do not appear in Java SE 6 (even if they are written by the programmer, as is the case for local variable annotations).

4.1.2  The reference_info field

The reference_info field is used to reference the annotation's target in bytecode. The contents of the reference_info field is determined by the value of target_type.

Typecasts, type tests, and object creation

When the annotation's target is a typecast, an instanceof expression, or a new expression, reference_info has the following structure:

    {
        u2 offset;
    } reference_info;

The offset field denotes the offset (i.e., within the bytecodes of the containing method) of the checkcast bytecode emitted for the typecast, the instanceof bytecode emitted for the type tests, or of the new bytecode emitted for the object creation expression. Typecast annotations are attached to a single bytecode, not a bytecode range (or ranges): the annotation provides information about the type of a single value, not about the behavior of a code block. A similar argument applies to type tests and object creation.

For annotated typecasts, the attribute may be attached to a checkcast bytecode, or to any other bytecode. The rationale for this is that the Java compiler is permitted to omit checkcast bytecodes for typecasts that are guaranteed to be no-ops. For example, a cast from String to @NonNull String may be a no-op for the underlying Java type system (which sees a cast from String String). If the compiler omits the checkcast bytecode, the @NonNull attribute would be attached to the (last) bytecode that creates the target expression instead. This approach permits code generation for existing compilers to be unaffected.

See the end of this section for handling of generic type arguments and arrays.

Local Variables

When the annotation's target is a local variable, reference_info has the following structure:

    {
        u2 table_length;
        {
            u2 start_pc;
            u2 length;
            u2 index;
        } table[table_length];
    } reference_info;

The table_length field specifies the number of entries in the table array; multiple entries are necessary because a compiler is permitted to break a single variable into multiple live ranges with different local variable indices. The start_pc and length fields specify the variable's live range in the bytecodes of the local variable's containing method (from offset start_pc to offset start_pc + length). The index field stores the local variable's index in that method. These fields are similar to those of the optional LocalVariableTable attribute defined in JVMS3 §4.8.12.

Storing local variable annotations in the class file raises certain challenges. For example, live ranges are not isomorphic to local variables. Further, a local variable with no live range may not appear in the class file (but it is also irrelevant to the program).

Method Receivers

When the annotation's target is a method receiver, reference_info is empty.

Type Parameter Bounds

When the annotation's target is a bound of a type parameter of a class or method, reference_info has the following structure:

    {
        u1 param_index;
        u1 bound_index;
    } reference_info;

param_index specifies the index of the type parameter, while bound_index specifies the index of the bound. Consider the following example:

  <T extends @A Object & @B Comparable, U extends @C Cloneable>

Here @A has param_index 0 and bound_index 0, @B has param_index 0 and bound_index 1, and @C has param_index 1 and bound_index 0.

Class extends and implements Clauses

When the annotation's target is a type in an extends or implements clause, reference_info has the following structure:

    {
        u1 type_index;
    } reference_info;

type_index specifies the index of the type in the clause: -1 (255) is used if the annotation is on the superclass type, and the value i is used if the annotation is on the ith superinterface type (counting from zero).

throws Clauses

When the annotation's target is a type in a throws clause, reference_info has the following structure:

    {
        u1 type_index;
    } reference_info

type_index specifies the index of the exception type in the clause: the value i denotes an annotation on the ith exception type.

Generic Type Arguments or Arrays

When the annotation's target is a generic type argument or array type, reference_info contains what it normally would for the raw type (e.g., offset for an annotation on a type argument in a typecast), plus the following fields at the end:

    u2 location_length;
    u1 location[location_length];

The location_length field specifies the number of elements in the variable-length location field. location encodes which type argument or array element the annotation targets. Specifically, the ith item in location denotes the index of the type argument or array dimension at the ith level of the hierarchy. Figure 2 shows the values of the location_length and location fields for the annotations in a sample field declaration.


Declaration: @A Map<@B Comparable<@C Object[@D][@E][@F]>, @G List<@H Document>>

Annotationlocation_lengthlocation
@Anot applicable
@B10
@C20, 0
@D30, 0, 0
@E30, 0, 1
@F30, 0, 2
@G11
@H21, 0
Figure 2: Values of the location_length and location fields for a sample declaration.

5  Detailed grammar changes

This section gives detailed changes to the grammar of the Java language [GJSB05, ch. 18], based on the conceptually simple summary from Section 2.2. Additions are underlined.

This section is of interest primarily to language tool implementers, such as compiler writers. Most users can read just Sections 2.1 and B.1.

Infelicities in the Java grammar make this section longer than the simple summary of Section 2.2. Some improvements are possible (for instance, by slightly refactoring the Java grammar), but this version attempts to minimize changes to existing grammar productions.

Type:
    [Annotations] UnannType
UnannType:
    Identifier [TypeArguments]{ . Identifier [TypeArguments]} {[Annotations] []}
    BasicType
FormalParameterDecls:
    [final] [Annotations] UnannType FormalParameterDeclsRest
ForVarControl:
    [final] [Annotations] UnannType Identifier ForVarControlRest
MethodOrFieldDecl:
    UnannType Identifier MethodOrFieldRest
InterfaceMethodOrFieldDecl:
    UnannType Identifier InterfaceMethodOrFieldRest
MethodDeclaratorRest:
    FormalParameters {[Annotations] []} [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] ( MethodBody | ; )
VoidMethodDeclaratorRest:
    FormalParameters [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] ( MethodBody | ; )
InterfaceMethodDeclaratorRest:
    FormalParameters {[Annotations] []} [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] ;
VoidInterfaceMethodDeclaratorRest:
    FormalParameters [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] ;
ConstructorDeclaratorRest:
    FormalParameters [Annotations] [throws QualifiedIdentifierList] MethodBody
Primary:
    ...
    BasicType {[Annotations] []} .class
IdentifierSuffix:
    [Annotations] [ ( ] {[Annotations] []} .class | Expression ])
    ...
VariableDeclaratorRest:
    {[Annotations] []} [= VariableInitializer]
ConstantDeclaratorRest:
    {[Annotations] []} [= VariableInitializer]
VariableDeclaratorId:
    Identifier {[Annotations] []}
FormalParameterDeclsRest:
    VariableDeclaratorId [, FormalParameterDecls]
    [Annotations] ... VariableDeclaratorId

A  Example use of type annotations: Type qualifiers

One example use of annotation on types is to create custom type qualifiers for Java, such as @NonNull, @ReadOnly, @Interned, or @Tainted. Type qualifiers are modifiers on a type; a declaration that uses a qualified type provides extra information about the declared variable. A designer can define new type qualifiers using Java annotations, and can provide compiler plug-ins to check their semantics (for instance, by issuing lint-like warnings during compilation). A programmer can then use these type qualifiers throughout a program to obtain additional guarantees at compile time about the program.

The type system defined by the type qualifiers does not change Java semantics, nor is it used by the Java compiler or run-time system. Rather, it is used by the checking tool, which can be viewed as performing type-checking on this richer type system. (The qualified type is usually treated as a subtype or a supertype of the unqualified type.) As an example, a variable of type Boolean has one of the values null, TRUE, or FALSE (more precisely, it is null or it refers to a value that is equal to TRUE or to FALSE). A programmer can depend on this, because the Java compiler guarantees it. Likewise, a compiler plug-in can guarantee that a variable of type @NonNull Boolean has one of the values TRUE or FALSE (but not null), and a programmer can depend on this. Note that a type qualifier such as @NonNull refers to a type, not a variable, though JSR 308 could be used to write annotations on variables as well.

Type qualifiers can help prevent errors and make possible a variety of program analyses. Since they are user-defined, developers can create and use the type qualifiers that are most appropriate for their software.

A system for custom type qualifiers requires extensions to Java's annotation system, described in this document; the existing Java SE 6 annotations are inadequate. Similarly to type qualifiers, other pluggable type systems [Bra04] and similar lint-like checkers also require these extensions to Java's annotation system.

Our key goal is to create a type qualifier system that is compatible with the Java language, VM, and toolchain. Previous proposals for Java type qualifiers are incompatible with the existing Java language and tools, are too inexpressive, or both. The use of annotations for custom type qualifiers has a number of benefits over new Java keywords or special comments. First, Java already implements annotations, and Java SE 6 features a framework for compile-time annotation processing. This allows JSR 308 to build upon existing stable mechanisms and integrate with the Java toolchain, and it promotes the maintainability and simplicity of the modifications. Second, since annotations do not affect the runtime semantics of a program, applications written with custom type qualifiers are backward-compatible with the vanilla JDK. No modifications to the virtual machine are necessary.

Four compiler plug-ins that perform type qualifier type-checking, all built using JSR 308, are distributed at the JSR 308 webpage, https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/. The four checkers, respectively, help to prevent and detect null pointer errors (via a @NonNull annotation), equality-checking errors (via a @Interned annotation), mutation errors (via the Javari [BE04, TE05] type system), and mutation errors (via the IGJ [ZPA+07] type system). A technical report [PAC+07] discusses experience in which these plug-ins exposed bugs in real programs.

A.1  Examples of type qualifiers

The ability to place annotations on arbitrary occurrences of a type improves the expressiveness of annotations, which has many benefits for Java programmers. Here we mention just one use that is enabled by extended annotations, namely the creation of type qualifiers. (Figure 3 gives an example of the use of type qualifiers.)


 1  @DefaultQualifier("NonNull")  
 2  class DAG {
 3
 4      Set<Edge> edges;          
 5
 6      // ...
 7
 8      List<Vertex> getNeighbors(@Interned @Readonly Vertex v) @Readonly { 
 9          List<Vertex> neighbors = new LinkedList<Vertex>();
10          for (Edge e : edges)                
11              if (e.from() == v)                          
12                  neighbors.add(e.to());      
13          return neighbors;                   
14      }
15  }

Figure 3: The DAG class, which represents a directed acyclic graph, illustrates how type qualifiers might be written by a programmer and checked by a type-checking plug-in in order to detect or prevent errors.
(1) The @DefaultQualifier("NonNull") annotation (line 1) indicates that no reference in the DAG class may be null (unless otherwise annotated). It is equivalent to writing line 4 as “@NonNull Set<@NonNull Edge> edges;”, for example. This guarantees that the uses of edges on line 10, and e on lines 11 and 12, cannot cause a null pointer exception. Similarly, the (implicit) @NonNull return type of getNeighbors() (line 8) enables its clients to depend on the fact that it will always return a List, even if v has no neighbors.
(2) The two @Readonly annotations on method getNeighbors (line 8) guarantee to clients that the method does not modify (respectively) its argument (a Vertex) or its receiver (a DAG). The lack of a @Readonly annotation on the return value indicates that clients are free to modify the returned List.
(3) The @Interned annotation on line 8 (along with an @Interned annotation on the return type in the declaration of Edge.from(), not shown) indicates that the use of object equality (==) on line 11 is a valid optimization. In the absence of such annotations, use of the equals method is preferred to ==.


As an example of how JSR 308 might be used, consider a @NonNull type qualifier that signifies that a variable should never be assigned null [Det96, Eva96, DLNS98, FL03, CMM05]. A programmer can annotate any use of a type with the @NonNull annotation. A compiler plug-in would check that a @NonNull variable is never assigned a possibly-null value, thus enforcing the @NonNull type system.

@Readonly and @Immutable are other examples of useful type qualifiers [ZPA+07, BE04, TE05, GF05, KT01, SW01, PBKM00]. Similar to C's const, an object's internal state may not be modified through references that are declared @Readonly. A type qualifier designer would create a compiler plug-in (an annotation processor) to check the semantics of @Readonly. For instance, a method may only be called on a @Readonly object if the method was declared with a @Readonly receiver. @Readonly's immutability guarantee can help developers avoid accidental modifications, which are often manifested as run-time errors. An immutability annotation can also improve performance. The Access Intents mechanism of WebSphere Application Server already incorporates such functionality: a programmer can indicate that a particular method (or all methods) on an Enterprise JavaBean is readonly.

Additional examples of useful type qualifiers abound. We mention just a few others. C uses the const, volatile, and restrict type qualifiers. Type qualifiers YY for two-digit year strings and YYYY for four-digit year strings helped to detect, then verify the absence of, Y2K errors [EFA99]. Expressing units of measurement (e.g., SI units such as meter, kilogram, second) can prevent errors in which a program mixes incompatible quantities; units such as dollars can prevent other errors. Range constraints, also known as ranged types, can indicate that a particular int has a value between 0 and 10; these are often desirable in realtime code and in other applications, and are supported in languages such as Ada and Pascal. Type qualifiers can indicate data that originated from an untrustworthy source [PØ95, VS97]; examples for C include user vs. kernel indicating user-space and kernel-space pointers in order to prevent attacks on operating systems [JW04], and tainted for strings that originated in user input and that should not be used as a format string [STFW01]. A localizable qualifier can indicate where translation of user-visible messages should be performed. Annotations can indicate other properties of its contents, such as the format or encoding of a string (e.g., XML, SQL, human language, etc.). An interned qualifier can indicate which objects have been converted to canonical form and thus may be compared via reference equality. Type qualifiers such as unique and unaliased can express properties about pointers and aliases [Eva96, CMM05]; other qualifiers can detect and prevent deadlock in concurrent programs [FTA02, AFKT03]. A ThreadSafe qualifier [GPB+06] could indicate that a given field should contain a thread-safe implementation of a given interface; this is more flexible than annotating the interface itself to require that all implementations must be thread-safe. Annotations (both type qualifiers and others) can specify cut points in aspect-oriented programming (AOP) [EM04]. Flow-sensitive type qualifiers [FTA02] can express typestate properties such as whether a file is in the open, read, write, readwrite, or closed state, and can guarantee that a file is opened for reading before it is read, etc. The Vault language's type guards and capability states are similar [DF01].

B  Discussion of Java language syntax extensions

In Java SE 6, annotations can be written only on method parameters and the declarations of packages, classes, methods, fields, and local variables. Additional annotations are necessary in order to fully specify Java classes and methods.

B.1  Examples of annotation syntax

This section gives examples of the annotation syntax specified in Sections 2.1 and 5. Section B.2 motivates annotating these locations by giving the meaning of annotations that need to be applied to these locations.

B.2  Uses for annotations on types

This section gives examples of annotations that a programmer may wish to place on a type. Each of these uses is either impossible or extremely inconvenient in the absence of the new locations for annotations proposed in this document. For brevity, we do not give examples of uses for every type annotation. The specific annotation names used in this section, such as @NonNull, are examples only; this document does not define any annotations, merely specifying where they can appear in Java code.

It is worthwhile to permit annotations on all uses of types (even those for which no immediate use is apparent) for consistency, expressiveness, and support of unforeseen future uses. An annotation need not utilize every possible annotation location. For example, a system that fully specifies type qualifiers in signatures but infers them for implementations [GF05] may not need annotations on typecasts, object creation, local variables, or certain other locations. Other systems may forbid top-level (non-type-argument, non-array) annotations on object creation (new) expressions, such as new @Interned Object().

Generics and arrays

Generic collection classes are declared one level at a time, so it is easy to annotate each level individually.

It is desirable that the syntax for arrays be equally expressive. Here are examples of uses for annotations on array levels:

Receivers

It is possible for a programmer to express type qualifiers on the formal parameters of a method. Since the method receiver (this) is an implicit formal parameter, programmers should be able to express type qualifiers on it, for consistency and expressiveness. (In Java's syntax, the receiver's type is implicit rather than explicitly written in the source code of the method.)

For example, consider the following method:

package javax.xml.bind;
class Marshaller {
  void marshal(@Readonly Object jaxbElement,
               @Mutable Writer writer) @Readonly {
    ...
  }
}

The annotations indicate that marshal modifies its second parameter but does not modify its first parameter nor its receiver.

Stating that a method does not modify its receiver is different than saying the method has no side effects at all, so it is not appropriate as a method annotation (such as JML's pure annotation).

A receiver annotation must also be distinct from a return value annotation: a method might modify its receiver but return an immutable object, or might not modify its receiver but return a mutable object.

Since a receiver annotation is distinct from a method or a return value annotation, new syntax is required for the receiver annotation.

As with Java's annotations on formal parameters, annotations on the receiver do not affect the Java signature, compile-time resolution of overloading, or run-time resolution of overriding. The Java type of every receiver in a class is the same — but their annotations, and thus their qualified type in a type qualifier framework, may differ.

Casts

There are two distinct reasons to annotate the type in a type cast: to fully specify the casted type (including annotations that are retained without change), or to indicate an application-specific invariant that is beyond the reasoning capability of the Java type system. Because a user can apply a type cast to any expression, a user can annotate the type of any expression. (This is different than annotating the expression itself; see Section D.3.1.)

  1. Annotations on type casts permit the type in a type cast to be fully specified, including any appropriate annotations. In this case, the annotation on the cast is the same as the annotation on the type of the operand expression. The annotations are preserved, not changed, by the cast, and the annotation serves as a reminder of the type of the cast expression. For example, in
      @Readonly Object x;
      ... (@Readonly Date) x ...
    

    the cast preserves the annotation part of the type and changes only the Java type. If a cast could not be annotated, then a cast would remove the annotation:

      @Readonly Object x;
      ... (Date) x ...       // annotation processor issues warning due to casting away @Readonly
    

    This cast changes the annotation; it uses x as a non-@Readonly object, which changes its type and would require a run-time mechanism to enforce type safety.

    An annotation processor could permit the unannotated cast syntax but implicitly add the annotation, treating the cast type as @Readonly Date. This has the advantage of brevity, but the disadvantage of being less explicit and of interfering somewhat with the second use of cast annotations. Experience will indicate which design is better in practice.

  2. A second use for annotations on type casts is — like ordinary Java casts — to provide the compiler with information that is beyond the ability of its typing rules. Such properties are often called “application invariants”, since they are facts guaranteed by the logic of the application program.

    As a trivial example, the following cast changes the annotation but is guaranteed to be safe at run time:

      final Object x = new Object();
      ... (@NonNull Object) x ...
    

    An annotation processing tool could trust such type casts, perhaps issuing a warning to remind users to verify their safety by hand or in some other manner. An alternative approach would be to check the type cast dynamically, as Java casts are, but we do not endorse such an approach, because annotations are not intended to change the run-time behavior of a Java program and because there is not generally a run-time representation of the annotations.

Type tests

Annotations on type tests (instanceof) allow the programmer to specify the full type, as in the first justification for annotations on type casts, above. However, the annotation is not tested at run time — the JVM only checks the base Java type. In the implementation, there is no run-time representation of the annotations on an object's type, so dynamic type test cannot determine whether an annotation is present. This abides by the intention of the Java annotation designers, that annotations should not change the run-time behavior of a Java program.

Annotation of the type test permits the idiom

  if (x instanceof MyType) {
    ... (MyType) x ...
  }

to be used with the same annotated type T in both occurrences. By contrast, using different types in the type test and the type cast might be confusing.

To prevent confusion caused by incompatible annotations, an annotation processor could require the annotation parts of the operand and the type to be the same:

  @Readonly Object x;
  if (x instanceof Date) { ... }            // error: incompatible annotations
  if (x instanceof @Readonly Date) { ... }  // OK
  Object y;
  if (y instanceof Date) { ... }            // OK
  if (y instanceof @NonNull Date) { ... }   // error: incompatible annotations

(As with type casts, an annotation processor could implicitly add a missing annotation; this would be more concise but less explicit, and experience will dictate which is better for users.)

As a consequence of the fact that the annotation is not checked at run time, in the following

  if (x instanceof @A1 T) { ... }
  else if (x instanceof @A2 T) { ... }

the second conditional is always dead code. An annotation processor may warn that one or both of the instanceof tests is a compile-time type error.

A non-null qualifier is a special case because it is possible to check at run time whether a given value can have a non-null type. A type-checker for a non-null type system could take advantage of this fact, for instance to perform flow-sensitive type analysis in the presence of a x != null test, but JSR 308 makes no special allowance for it.

Object creation

Annotations on object creation (new) can indicate the type of the newly-created object, which could be statically (at compile time) verified to be compatible with the annotations on the constructor.

Type bounds

Annotations on type parameter bounds (extends) and wildcard bounds (extends and super) allow the programmer to fully constrain generic types. Creation of objects with constrained generic types could be statically verified to comply with the annotated bounds.

Inheritance

Annotations on class inheritance (extends and implements) are necessary to allow a programmer to fully specify a supertype. It would otherwise be impossible to extend the annotated version of a particular type t (which is often a valid subtype or supertype of t) without using an anonymous class.

These annotations also provide a convenient way to alias otherwise cumbersome types. For instance, a programmer might declare

  final class MyStringMap extends
    @Readonly Map<@NonNull String, @NonEmpty List<@NonNull @Readonly String>> {}

so that MyStringMap may be used in place of the full, unpalatable supertype. (However, also see Section D.3.4 for problems with this approach.)

Throws clauses

Annotations in the throws clauses of method declarations allow programmers to enhance exception types. For instance, programs that use the @Critical annotation from the above examples could be statically checked to ensure that catch blocks for @Critical exceptions are not empty.

B.3  Syntax of array annotations

As discussed in Section B.2, it is desirable to be able to independently annotate both the base type and each distinct level of a nested array. Forbidding annotations on arbitrary levels of an array would simplify the syntax, but it would reduce expressiveness to an unacceptable degree. The syntax of array annotations follows the same general prefix rule as other annotations, though it looks slightly different because the syntax of array types is different than the syntax of other Java types. (Arrays are less commonly used than generics, so even if you don't like the array syntax, it need not bother you in most cases.)

Most programmers read a Java declaration such as String[][] as “array of arrays of Strings”. The order of reading the declaration is left-to-right for the brackets, then left-to-right for the base type.

  declaration:                String           []             []

  order of reading:  2------------->  1 ----------------------->

To more fully describe a particular array, a programmer might say “non-null array of length-10 arrays of English Strings”. The prefix notation naturally fits the way a programmer reads a Java type: this type is declared as

  declaration:       @English String  @NonNull [] @Length(10) []

  order of reading:  2------------->  1 ----------------------->

and is read in exactly the same order as before.

An important property of this syntax is that adding array levels does not change the meaning of existing annotations. For example, var1 has the same annotations as the elements of arr2:

  @NonNull String var1;
  @NonNull String[] arr2;

This is necessary especially since the two variables may appear in a single declaration:

  @NonNull String var1, arr2[];

A potential criticism is that a type annotation at the very beginning of a declaration does not refer to the full type, even though variable annotations (which also occur at the beginning of the declaration) do refer to the entire variable. As an example, in @NonNull String[] arr2; the variable arr2 is not non-null. This is actually a criticism of Java itself, not of the JSR 308 annotation extension, which is merely consistent with Java. In a declaration String[] arr2;, the top-level type constructor does not appear on the far left. An annotation on the whole type (the array) must appear on the syntax that indicates the array — that is, on the brackets.

Other array syntaxes can be imagined, but they are less consistent with Java syntax and therefore harder to read and write. Examples include making annotations at the beginning of the type refer to the whole type, using a postfix syntax rather than a prefix syntax, and postfix syntax within angle brackets as for generics.

B.4  Disambiguating type and declaration annotations

An annotation before a method declaration annotates either the return type, or the method declaration; similarly for field declarations. The @Target meta-annotation indicates the programmer intention.

For example, in

  @Override
  @NonNull Dimension getSize() { ... }

@Override applies to the method and @NonNull applies to the return type. This is because Override is meta-annotated with ElementType.METHOD, and NonNull is meta-annotated with ElementType.TYPE_USE (see Section 2.3).

As another example, consider the following two field declarations.

  @NonNegative int balance;
  @GuardedBy("accessLock") long lastAccessedTime;

The annotation @NonNegative applies to the field type int, not to the whole variable declaration nor to the variable itself. The annotation @GuardedBy("accessLock") applies to the field.

As explained in Section 2.3, the compiler applies the annotation to every target that is consistent with its meta-annotation. This means that, for certain syntactic locations, which target (Java construct) is being annotated depends on the annotation. (It is possible for an annotation to be applied to both a declaration and a type, but we have not yet found an example when that would be necessary.) Thus, there is no ambiguity for the compiler, and in practice programmers have no difficulty in understanding what a given annotation means.

C  Discussion of tool modifications

This section primarily discusses tool modifications that are consequences of JSR 308's changes to the Java syntax and class file format, as presented in Sections 2 and 4.

C.1  Compiler

The syntax extensions described in Section 2 require the javac Java compiler to accept annotations in the proposed locations and to add them to the program's AST. The relevant AST node classes must also be modified to store these annotations.

Javac's -Xprint functionality reads a .class file and prints the interface (class declarations with signatures of all fields and methods). (The -Xprint functionality is similar to javap, but cannot provide any information about bytecodes or method bodies, because it is implemented internally as an annotation processor.) This must be updated to print the extended annotations as well. Also see Section C.4.

Section 3 requires compilers to place certain annotations in the class file. This is consistent with the principle that annotations should not affect behavior: in the absence of an annotation processor, the compiler produces the same bytecodes for annotated code as it would have for the same code without annotations. (The class file may differ, since the annotations are stored in it, but the bytecode part does not differ.)

This may change the compiler implementation of certain optimizations, such as common subexpression elimination, but this restriction on the compiler implementation is unobjectionable for three reasons.

  1. Java-to-bytecode compilers rarely perform sophisticated optimizations, since the bytecode-to-native (JIT) compiler is the major determinant in Java program performance. Thus, the restriction will not affect most compilers.
  2. The compiler workarounds are simple. Suppose that two expressions that are candidates for common subexpression elimination have different type annotations. A compiler could: not perform the optimization when the annotations differ; create a single expression whose type has both of the annotations (e.g., merging (@Positive Integer) 42 and (@Even Integer) 42 into (@Positive @Even Integer) 42); or create an unannotated expression and copy its value into two variables with differently-annotated types.
  3. It seems unlikely that two identical, non-trivial expressions would have differently-annotated types. Thus, any compiler restrictions will have little or no effect on most compiled programs.

Java compilers can often produce bytecode for an earlier version of the virtual machine, via the -target command-line option. For example, a programmer could execute a compilation command such as javac -source 7 -target 5 MyFile.java. A Java 7 compiler produces a class file with the same attributes for type annotations as when the target is a version 7 JVM. However, the compiler is permitted to also place type annotations in declaration attributes. For instance, the annotation on the top level of a return type would also be placed on the method (in the method attribute in the class file). This enables class file analysis tools that are written for Java SE 5 to view a subset of the type qualifiers (lacking generics, array levels, method receivers, etc.), albeit attached to declarations.

A user can use a Java SE 5/6 compiler to compile a Java class that contains type annotations, so long as the type annotations only appear in places that are legal in Java SE 5. Furthermore, the compiler must be provided with a definition of the annotation that is meta-annotated not with @Target(ElementType.TYPE_USE) (since ElementType.TYPE_USE does not exist in Java SE 5/6), but with no meta-annotation or with one that permits annotations on any declaration.

C.2  ASTs and annotation processing

The Java Model AST of JSR 198 (Extension API for Integrated Development Environments) gives access to the entire source code of a method. This AST (abstract syntax tree) must be updated to represent all new locations for annotations.

Sun's Tree API, which exposes the AST (including annotations) to authors of javac annotation processors (compile-time plug-ins), must be updated to reflect the modifications made to the internal AST node classes described in Section 2. The same goes for other Java compilers, such as that of Eclipse).

Like reflection, the JSR 269 (annotation processing) model does not represent constructs below the method level, such as individual statements and expressions. Therefore, it needs to be updated only with respect to declaration-related annotations (the top of Figure 1; also see Section D.3.6). The JSR 269 model, javax.lang.model.*, already has some classes representing annotations; see https://docs.oracle.com/javase/6/docs/api/javax/lang/model/element/package-summary.html. The annotation processing API in javax.annotation.processing must also be revised.

C.3  Reflection

The java.lang.reflect.* and java.lang.Class APIs give access to annotations on public API elements such as classes, method signatures, etc. They must be updated to give the same access to the new extended annotations in the top of Figure 1.

For example, new method Method.getReceiverAnnotation (for the receiver this) would parallel the existing Method.getAnnotations (for the return value) and Method.getParameterAnnotations (for the formal parameters). Reflection gives no access to method implementations, so no changes are needed to provide access to annotations on casts (or other annotations inside a method body), type parameter names, or similar implementation details.

Suppose that a method is declared as:

  @NonEmpty List<@Interned String> foo(@NonNull List<@Opened File> files) @Readonly {...}

Then Method.getAnnotations() returns the @NonEmpty annotation, just as in Java SE 6, and likewise Method.getParameterAnnotations() returns the @NonNull annotation. New method Method.getReceiverAnnotations() returns the @Readonly annotation. We have not yet decided how to provide reflective access to annotations on generic types in a method's signature, such as the instances of @Interned and @Opened above.

The Mirror API com.sun.mirror.* need not be updated, as it has been superseded by JSR 269 [Dar06].

The changes described in this section are to APIs that query classes, method signatures, etc. The semantics of reflective invocation is not changed. For instance, suppose that a program reflectively calls a method with a parameter whose type is annotated as @Readonly, but the corresponding argument has a declared type that is non-@Readonly. The call succeeds. This is a requirement for backward compatibility: the existence of annotations in the class file should not cause a standard JVM to behave differently than if the annotations are not present (unless the program uses reflection to explicitly examine the annotations). Likewise, other reflective functionality such as AtomicReferenceFieldUpdater can bypass annotation constraints on a field.

C.4  Virtual machine and class file analysis tools

No modifications to the virtual machine are necessary. (The changes to reflection (Section C.3) do change virtual machine APIs in a minor way, but the representation of execution of bytecodes is unaffected.)

The javap disassembler must recognize the new class file format and must output annotations.

The pack200/unpack200 tool must preserve the new attributes through a compress-decompress cycle.

The compiler and other tools that read class files are trivially compatible with class files produced by a Java SE 5/6 compiler. However, the tools would not be able to read the impoverished version of type qualifiers that is expressible in Java SE 5 (see Section C.1). It is desirable for class file tools to be able to read at least that subset of type qualifiers. Therefore, APIs for reading annotations from a class file should be dependent on the class file version (as a number of APIs already are). If the class file version indicates Java 5 or 6, and none of the extended annotations defined by JSR 308 appear in the class file, then the API may return (all) annotations from declarations when queried for the annotations on the top-level type associated with the declaration (for example, the top-level return type, for a method declaration).

C.5  Other tools

Javadoc must output annotations at the new locations when those are part of the public API, such as in a method signature.

Similar modifications need to be made to tools outside the Sun JDK, such as IDEs (Eclipse, IDEA, JBuilder, jEdit, NetBeans), other tools that manipulate Java code (grammars for CUP, javacc), and tools that manipulate class files (ASM, BCEL). These changes need to be made by the authors of the respective tools.

A separate document, “Custom type qualifiers via annotations on Java types” (https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/java-type-qualifiers.pdf), explores implementation strategies for annotation processors that act as type-checking compiler plug-ins. It is not germane to this proposal, both because this proposal does not concern itself with annotation semantics and because writing such plug-ins does not require any changes beyond those described in this document.

A separate document, “Annotation File Specification” (https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/annotation-file-utilities/annotation-file-format.pdf), describes a textual format for annotations that is independent of .java or .class files. This textual format can represent annotations for libraries that cannot or should not be modified. We have built tools for manipulating annotations, including extracting annotations from and inserting annotations in .java and .class files. That file format is not part of this proposal for extending Java's annotations; it is better viewed as an implementation detail of our tools.

D  Other possible extensions to Java annotations

JSR 308 has the goal of refining the ideas presented here. This proposal serves as a starting point for the JSR 308 expert group, but the expert group has the freedom to modify this proposal or to explore other approaches. (A JSR, or Java Specification Request, is a proposed specification for some aspect of the Java platform — the Java language, virtual machine, libraries, etc. For more details, see the Java Community Process FAQ at https://jcp.org/en/introduction/faq.)

The Expert Group for JSR 308 may consider other extensions to annotations, in addition to annotations on types. This is especially true if the additional changes are small, there is no better venue to add such an annotation, and the new syntax would permit unanticipated future uses. Two examples follow, for which the proposal does not currently include a detailed design. Then, the rest of this section presents extensions that are out of the scope of JSR 308.

D.1  Duplicate annotations at a location

Currently, array-valued annotations can be clumsy to write:

@Resources({
    @Resource(name = "db1", type = DataSource.class)
    @Resource(name = "db2", type = DataSource.class)
})
public class MyClass { ... }

Likewise, it may be desirable for some (but not all) annotations to be specified more than once at a single location, but “It is a compile-time error if a declaration is annotated with more than one annotation for a given annotation type.” [GJSB05, §9.7]. (C# supports multiple annotations on a given program element.)

A cleaner syntax may be desirable for both purposes:

@Resource(name = "db1", type = DataSource.class)
@Resource(name = "db2", type = DataSource.class)
public class MyClass { ... }

We note two possible approaches to this problem.

  1. Use a meta-annotation that declares the type of the container, and desugar duplicate annotations into the current array syntax. For instance, it would desugar

      @A(1) @B @A(2) Object x;
    

    into

      @AContainer({@A(1), @A(2)}) @B Object x;
    

    This approach treats duplicate annotations as purely a syntactic convenience; it does not change annotations in any deep way. This approach is compatible with certain existing J2EE annotation processors that are already written to process both @A and @AContainer.

    This proposal would need to specify what happens if both @A and @AContainer annotations are present.

    One problem with this proposal is that it loses the ordering differently-named annotations. For example, it cannot distinguish these declarations:

      @A(1) @B @A(2) Object x;
      @A(1) @A(2) @B Object x;
    

    Another problem is that it requires defining an @AContainer annotation for each annotation @A, or else annotation @A cannot be duplicated.

  2. Add new methods that return multiple annotations. Each method of the form
      <T extends Annotation> T getAnnotation(Class<T> annotationClass)
    

    would be augmented by one of the form

      <T extends Annotation> List<T> getAnnotations(Class<T> annotationClass)
    

    No other changes would be necessary. (Naturally, existing code that uses some other workaround (like special @AContainer annotations) would need to be converted if it wished to take advantage of this new mechanism.)

D.2  Annotations on statements

Annotations on statements (or on some subset of statements, such as blocks or loops) would be useful for a variety of purposes, including atomicity/concurrency. Supporting annotations on statements would require defining both Java syntax and a convention for storing the information in the class file. See https://bitbucket.org/typetools/jsr308-langtools/wiki/AnnotationsOnStatements for a proposal that summarizes why statement annotations are desirable, and that proposes a Java syntax, a classfile storage format, and how other tools will accommodate them; join the jsr308-statements@lists.csail.mit.edu mailing list (via https://types.cs.washington.edu/list-archives/jsr308-statements/) to participate in discussions of the proposal.

D.3  Out-of-scope issues

This section of the document discusses several issues that are not in scope for JSR 308.

The last annotations JSR.

It is not a goal that JSR 308 is the last annotation-related JSR. It is acceptable to leave some issues to future language designers, just as JSR 175 (the previous annotations JSR [Blo04]) did. It is a goal not to unnecessarily close off realistic future avenues of extension.

D.3.1  Locations for annotations

Expression annotations.

Annotating a type cast indicates a property of a value (the result of an expression). This is different than annotating the expression itself, which indicates some property of the entire computation, such as that it should be performed atomically, that it acquires no locks, or that it should be formatted specially by an IDE. JSR 308 does not support expression annotations, because we have not yet discovered compelling use cases for them that cannot be equally well supported by statement annotations. (A minor inconvenience is that the use of statement annotations may require the programmer to create a separate statement for the expression to be annotated.)

Implicit Java types in casts.

Arbitrary values can be annotated using an annotation on a cast:

  (@Language("SQL") String) "select * from foo"

A possible shorthand would be to permit the Java type to be implicit:

  (@Language("SQL")) "select * from foo"

This is not permitted, nor may a cast be omitted in a type test, as in “x instanceof @NonNull”. There are several reasons for this decision:

  1. Erasing the annotations should leave a valid Java program.
  2. Stating the type reinforces that the annotation is a type annotation rather than an expression annotation.
  3. Especially in a type test, stating the type reinforces that the run-time effect is to check and change the Java type. In general, no run-time check of the annotation is possible.
  4. The benefit of omitting the type in the cast seems relatively minor.

An even shorter shorthand would drop the parentheses:

  @Language("SQL") "select * from foo"

In addition to the benefits and problems noted above, such an annotation is syntactically ambiguous with an expression annotation. Whether an annotation applies to expressions or to types is clear from the annotation's documentation and its @Target meta-annotation, similarly to how it is determined whether an annotation applies to a type or to a declaration (Section B.4).

Only certain statements.

It would be possible to permit annotations only on blocks and/or loops, as a restricted special case of statements. This is less general than permitting annotations on statements, and uses are more syntactically cluttered (for instance, this requires a statement to be converted into a block before it can be annotated). Most declarations could not be annotated as statements because enclosing the declaration in a block to annotate it would change (and limit) the variable's scope. This limitation in flexibility does yield the advantage that there would be no syntactic ambiguity between (say) statement annotations and declaration or type annotations.

Similarly, permitting annotations on partial constructs (such as only the body of a loop) appears both more complex, and no more useful, than annotating complete constructs (such as a full statement).

D.3.2  Changes to the annotation type

Subclassing annotations.

Annotations cannot subclass one another, so it is difficult to share behavior or to express similarities or relationships among annotation types. (To work around this, one could meta-annotate an annotation as a “subannotation” of another, and then the annotation processor could do all the work to interpret the meta-annotation. This is clumsy and indirect.)

Subannotations raise a trust problem. Suppose annotation @A is tied to a framework. If someone creates @B, a subclass of annotation @A, then by the Liskov Substitution Principle, @B must function as @A. But the framework will not want to load the subclass @B into its VM, as @B is alien and untrusted code from the framework's viewpoint. A final annotation on annotation type declarations could prevent creation and use of subtypes of a given annotation.

A more prosaic problem with subclassing is the limitation of one annotation of a given type per location (see Section D.1). Allowing subtyping among annotations requires solving that problem, and in particular coming up with reasonable semantics for the situation where you annotate with two subtypes of a given annotation type, and then try to read the annotation of the parent type.

Annotations as arguments to annotations

In Java, an annotation can have a parameter that is an annotation of a specific type (JLS §9.6 and §9.7). JLS §9.7 gives this example:

  @Author(@Name(first = "Joe", last = "Hacker"))

However, it is not possible to define an annotation that takes an arbitrary annotation as a parameter, as in

  @DefaultAnnotation(@AnyAnnotation)

More generally, an annotation type cannot have a member of its own type.

These limitations reduce the expressiveness of annotations. It is impossible to define annotations that take an arbitrary annotation as an argument. Two examples of such annotations are the @DefaultAnnotation example above, and an annotation that expresses that a method is polymorphic over annotations (as opposed to over types, as generics do). It is impossible to define annotations with recursive structure. It is inconvenient to define annotations with choices in their structure: a discriminated union can be simulated via field names that act as explicit tags.

Positional arguments

Annotation types cannot have positional arguments (except for the value argument, when it is the only argument). This limitation makes writing annotations with multiple arguments more verbose than necessary.

D.3.3  Semantics of annotations

Annotations for specific purposes.

JSR 308 does not define any annotations. JSR 308 extends the Java and class file syntax to permit annotations to be written in more places, and thus makes existing and future annotations more useful to programmers.

By contrast, JSR 305 “Annotations for Software Defect Detection” aims to define a small set of annotations. Examples include type annotations such as non-nullness (@Nonnull), signedness (@Nonnegative), tainting, and string format; and also non-type annotations such as whether a method's return value should always be checked by the caller. A programmer who cares about code quality will use both annotations defined in the JSR 305 “standard library”, and also others that are defined by third parties or by the programmer himself. For more details about JSR 305, see https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=305 and http://groups.google.com/group/jsr-305/.

Any type annotation, including those defined by JSR 305, is of limited use without the JSR 308 syntax. Without the JSR 308 annotation syntax, a static checker may lose track of type qualifiers whenever a program uses generic types (e.g., collection classes), whenever a method is invoked on an object, whenever a cast is performed, whenever a class is subclassed, etc. From the point of code checking, using the old Java annotation syntax is even worse than the type unsoundness of pre-generics Java, when there was no compiler-enforced type correctness guarantee for collections classes. Therefore, use of JSR 305 without JSR 308 is much less effective.

As of fall 2008, no reference implementation that uses JSR 305 annotations is planned. This hinders both programmers who want to use the annotations, and also people trying to interpret the meaning of the specification. By contrast, the JSR 308 reference implementation and the Checker framework for compile-time type-checking have been available since January 2007.

Annotation inheritance.

The annotation type java.lang.annotation.Inherited (JLS §9.6.1.3) indicates that annotations on a class C corresponding to a given annotation type are inherited by subclasses of C. This implies that annotations on interfaces are not inherited, nor are annotations on members (methods, constructors, fields, etc.). It might be useful to provide a more fine-grained mechanism that applies different rules to classes, methods, fields, etc., or even to specify inheritance of annotations from interfaces. These semantic issues are out of the scope of JSR 308 but may be taken up by JSR 305 (“Annotations for Software Defect Detection” [Pug06]).

Default annotations.

Specifying a default for annotations can reduce code size and (when used carefully and sparingly) increase code readability. For instance, Figure 3 uses @DefaultQualifier("NonNull") to avoid the clutter of 5 @NonNull annotations. It would be nicer to have a general mechanism, such as

  @DefaultAnnotation(NonNull.class, locations={ElementType.LOCAL_VARIABLE})

Defaults for annotations are a semantic issue that is out of the scope of JSR 308. It will be taken up by JSR 305 (“Annotations for Software Defect Detection” [Pug06]).

The defaulting syntax must also be able to specify the arguments to the default annotation (in the above example, the arguments to @NonNull).

A better syntax would use an annotation, not a string or class literal, as the argument to @DefaultAnnotation, as in

  @DefaultAnnotation(@MyAnnotation(arg="foo"))

In Java, it is not possible to define an annotation that takes an arbitrary annotation as a parameter; see Section D.3.2.

An issue for JSR 260 (Javadoc) and JSR 305 (Annotation semantics) is how inherited and defaulted annotations are handled in Javadoc: whether they are written out in full, or in some abbreviated form. Just as too many annotations may clutter source code, similar clutter-reduction ideas may need to be applied to Javadoc.

D.3.4  Type abbreviations and typedefs

An annotated type may be long and hard to read; compare Map<String, Object> to @NonNull Map<@NonNull String, @NonNull Object>. Class inheritance annotations and subclassing provides a partial solution, as noted in Section B.2 with the following example:

  final class MyStringMap extends
    @Readonly Map<@NonNull String, @NonEmpty List<@NonNull @Readonly String>> {}

This approach limits reusability: if a method is declared to take a MyStringMap parameter, then a Map (even of the right type, including annotations) cannot be passed to it. (By contrast, a MyStringMap can always be used where a Map of the appropriate type is expected.) Goetz [GPB+06] recommends exploiting Java's type inference to avoid some (but not all) instances of the long type name.

In summary, a built-in typedef mechanism might achieve both code readability and reusability.

D.3.5  Class file syntax

Changes to the class file syntax are out of the scope of JSR 308, which, for backward compatibility, does not change the way that existing annotations are stored in the class file.

However, some changes to the class file syntax have significant benefits, and could be the subject of another, small, JSR whose focus is only the class file format. Class file syntax changes require modification of compilers, JVMs, javap, and other class file tools (see Sections C.4 and C.5).

Reducing class file size via use of the constant pool.

Annotations could be stored in the constant pool, and use constant pool references from the annotation points. That would reduce class file size, especially if an annotation is used in many places in the same class, as is more likely once JSR 308 support is in place.

D.3.6  Access to method bodies in annotation processing API

A type-checking compiler plug-in (annotation processor) must process annotations (including those in method bodies), and it also must check each use of a variable/method whose declared type is annotated. For example, if a variable x is declared as @NonNull Object x;, then every assignment to x must be checked, because any assignment x = null; would be illegal.

The JSR 269 annotation processing API does not process annotations on local variables, as it is not designed to access method bodies. This limitation makes JSR 269 insufficient for creating a type-checking compiler plug-in.

An annotation and source code processing API for JSR 308 annotations could take advantage of JSR 198's Java Model. The Java Model defines a parsed view into the contents of a source file that is intended for construction of IDE extensions that are portable across multiple IDEs — precisely the situation with compiler plug-ins. JSR 308 may be shipped without defining this API, but defining this API may be desirable in the future (say, in a later version of Java), particularly after more experience is gained with JSR 308 annotation processors.

E  Logistical matters

JSR 308 (“Annotations on Java types”) should be included under the Java SE 7 umbrella JSR (which lists the JSRs that are part of the Java SE 7 release). However, it should be a separate JSR because it needs a separate expert group. The expert group will have overlap with any others dealing with other added language features that might be annotatable (such as method-reference types or closures), to check impact.

The specification and the TCK will be freely available, most likely licensed under terms that permit arbitrary use. The reference implementation is built on the OpenJDK Java implementation and is publicly available; our goal is for Sun to incorporate JSR 308 into the official OpenJDK release.

To ease the transition from standard Java SE 6 code to code with the extended annotations, the reference implementation recognizes the extended annotations when surrounded by comment markers:

  /*@Readonly*/ Object x;

This permits use of both standard Java SE 6 tools and the new annotations even before Java SE 7 is released. However, it is not part of the proposal, and the final Java SE 7 implementation will not recognize the new annotations when embedded in comments. The Spec# [BLS04] extension to C# can be made compilable by a standard C# compiler in a similar way, by enclosing its annotations in special /*^\^*/ comment markers. The /*@ comment syntax is a standard part of the Splint [Eva96], ESC/Java [FLL+02], and JML [LBR06] tools (that is, not with the goal of backward compatibility).

E.1  Edits to existing standards documents

Edits to the Java Language Specification (JLS): We need a document, complementary to the design document, that lists every edit that is required in the JLS. A preliminary step would be a list of all the locations that must be edited (for instance, by searching the entire JLS for uses of “annotation”, but the list will be a superset of the list of locations that were edited for JSR 175). The most important locations are the following.

Edits to the Java Virtual Machine Specification (JVMS): We need a document, complementary to the design document, that lists every edit that is required in the JVMS. The most important of these is the following

E.2  Testing (TCK, Technology Compatibility Kit)

JSR 308 will ship with a test suite (known as a TCK, or Technology Compatibility Kit).

Each tool that needs to be tested appears in Section 3; the TCK will include tests for each of them.

For each modified tool, we will test backward compatibility by passing all of its existing tests. (We may need to modify a few of them, for instance those that depend on specific bytecodes that are created by the compiler.)

We will test most other functionality by creating a set of Java programs that include annotations in every possible location. For instance, this can be used to test all aspects of the compiler (parsing, code generation, -Xprint).

We will provide multiple annotation processors (including at least one for checking @NonNull and one for checking @Interned) that utilize the new annotations, along with a test suite for each one. Each annotation processor's test suite consists of annotated code, along with expected output from the given annotation processor. Since the annotation processors utilize all aspects of JSR 308, this serves as an additional end-to-end test of the JSR 308 implementation. As a side benefit, the annotation processors will be useful in their own right, will thereby illustrate the utility of JSR 308, and will serve as examples for people who wish to create their own type-checking plug-ins.

F  Related work

Section A.1 gave many examples of how type qualifiers have been used in the past. Also see the related work section of [PAC+07].

C#'s attributes [ECM06, chap. 24] play the same role as Java's annotations: they attach metadata to specific parts of a program, and are carried through to the compiled bytecode representation, where they can be accessed via reflection. The syntax is different: C# uses [AnnotationName] or [AnnotationName: data] where Java uses @AnnotationName or @AnnotationName(data); C# uses AttributeUsageAttribute where Java uses Target; and so forth. However, C# permits metadata on generic arguments, and C# permits multiple metadata instances of the same type to appear at a given location.

Like Java, C# does not permit metadata on elements within a method body. (The “[a]C#” language [CCC05], whose name is pronounced “annotated C sharp”, is an extension to C# that permits annotation of statements and code blocks.)

Harmon and Klefstad [HK07] propose a standard for worst-case execution time annotations.

Pechtchanski's dissertation [Pec03] uses annotations in the aid of dynamic program optimization. Pechtchanski implemented an extension to the Jikes compiler that supports stylized comments, and uses these annotations on classes, fields, methods, formals, local variable declarations, object creation (new) expressions, method invocations (calls), and program points (empty statements). The annotations are propagated by the compiler to the class file.

Mathias Ricken's LAPT-javac (https://ricken.us/research/laptjavac/) is a version of javac (version 1.5.0_06) that encodes annotations on local variables in the class file, in new Runtime{Inv,V}isibleLocalVariableAnnotations attributes. The class file format of LAPT-javac differs from that proposed in this document. Ricken's xajavac (Extended Annotation Enabled javac) permits subtyping of annotations (https://ricken.us/research/xajavac/).

The Java Modeling Language, JML [LBR06], is a behavioral modeling language for writing specifications for Java code. It uses stylized comments as annotations, some of which apply to types.

Ownership types [CPN98, Boy04, Cla01, CD02, PNCB06, NVP98, DM05, LM04, LP06] permit programmers to control aliasing and access among objects. Ownership types can be expressed with type annotations and have been applied to program verification [LM04, Mül02, MPHL06], thread synchronization [BLR02, JPLS05], memory management [ACG+06, BSBR03], and representation independence [BN02].

JavaCOP [ANMM06] is a framework for implementing pluggable type systems in Java. Whereas JSR 308 uses standard interfaces such as the Tree API and the JSR 269 annotation processing framework, JavaCOP defines its own incompatible variants. A JavaCOP type checker must be programmed in a combination of Java and JavaCOP's own declarative pattern-matching and rule-based language. JavaCOP's authors have defined over a dozen type-checkers in their language. The paper does not report that they have run any of these type-checkers on a real program; this is due to limitations that make JavaCOP impractical (so far) for real use.

JACK makes annotations on array brackets refer to the array, not the elements of the array [MPPD08].

Acknowledgments

Matt Papi designed and implemented the JSR 308 compiler as modifications to Sun's OpenJDK javac compiler, and contributed to the JSR 308 design.

The members of the JSR 308 mailing list (https://types.cs.washington.edu/list-archives/jsr308/) provided valuable comments and suggestions. Additional feedback is welcome.

At the 5th annual JCP Program Awards (in May 2007), JSR 308 received the Most Innovative Java SE/EE JSR of the Year award.

References

[AAA06]
Marwan Abi-Antoun and Jonathan Aldrich. Bringing ownership domains to mainstream Java. In Companion to Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2006), pages 702–703, Portland, OR, USA, October 24–26, 2006.
[ACG+06]
Chris Andrea, Yvonne Coady, Celina Gibbs, James Noble, Jan Vitek, and Tian Zhao. Scoped types and aspects for real-time systems. In ECOOP 2006 — Object-Oriented Programming, 20th European Conference, pages 124–147, Nantes, France, July 5–7, 2006.
[AFKT03]
Alex Aiken, Jeffrey S. Foster, John Kodumal, and Tachio Terauchi. Checking and inferring local non-aliasing. In PLDI 2003, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2003 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 129–140, San Diego, CA, USA, June 9–11, 2003.
[ANMM06]
Chris Andreae, James Noble, Shane Markstrum, and Todd Millstein. A framework for implementing pluggable type systems. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2006), pages 57–74, Portland, OR, USA, October 24–26, 2006.
[BE04]
Adrian Birka and Michael D. Ernst. A practical type system and language for reference immutability. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2004), pages 35–49, Vancouver, BC, Canada, October 26–28, 2004.
[BHP]
Lilian Burdy, Marieke Huisman, and Mariela Pavlova. Preliminary design of BML: A behavioral interface specification language for Java bytecode.
[Blo04]
Joshua Bloch. JSR 175: A metadata facility for the Java programming language. https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=175, September 30, 2004.
[BLR02]
Chandrasekhar Boyapati, Robert Lee, and Martin Rinard. Ownership types for safe programming: Preventing data races and deadlocks. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2002), pages 211–230, Seattle, WA, USA, October 28–30, 2002.
[BLS04]
Mike Barnett, K. Rustan M. Leino, and Wolfram Schulte. The Spec# programming system: An overview. In Construction and Analysis of Safe, Secure, and Interoperable Smart Devices, pages 49–69, Marseille, France, March 10–13, 2004.
[BN02]
Anindya Banerjee and David A. Naumann. Representation independence, confinement, and access control. In Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, pages 166–177, Portland, Oregon, January 16–18, 2002.
[Boy04]
Chandrasekhar Boyapati. SafeJava: A Unified Type System for Safe Programming. PhD thesis, MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Cambridge, MA, February 2004.
[Bra04]
Gilad Bracha. Pluggable type systems. In OOPSLA Workshop on Revival of Dynamic Languages, Vancouver, BC, Canada, October 2004.
[BSBR03]
Chandrasekhar Boyapati, Alexandru Salcianu, William Beebee, Jr., and Martin Rinard. Ownership types for safe region-based memory management in real-time java. In PLDI 2003, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2003 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 324–337, San Diego, CA, USA, June 9–11, 2003.
[CCC05]
Walter Cazzola, Antonio Cisternino, and Diego Colombo. Freely annotating C#. Journal of Object Technology, 4(10):31–48, December 2005. Special Issue: OOPS Track at SAC 2005.
[CD02]
Dave Clarke and Sophia Drossopoulou. Ownership, encapsulation and the disjointness of type and effect. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2002), pages 292–310, Seattle, WA, USA, October 28–30, 2002.
[CJ07]
Patrice Chalin and Perry R. James. Non-null references by default in Java: Alleviating the nullity annotation burden. In ECOOP 2007 — Object-Oriented Programming, 21st European Conference, pages 227–247, Berlin, Germany, August 1–3, 2007.
[Cla01]
David Clarke. Object Ownership and Containment. PhD thesis, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2001.
[CMM05]
Brian Chin, Shane Markstrum, and Todd Millstein. Semantic type qualifiers. In PLDI 2005, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2005 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 85–95, Chicago, IL, USA, June 13–15, 2005.
[CPN98]
David G. Clarke, John M. Potter, and James Noble. Ownership types for flexible alias protection. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA '98), pages 48–64, Vancouver, BC, Canada, October 20–22, 1998.
[Dar06]
Joe Darcy. JSR 269: Pluggable annotation processing API. https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=269, May 17, 2006. Public review version.
[Det96]
David L. Detlefs. An overview of the Extended Static Checking system. In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Formal Methods in Software Practice, pages 1–9, January 1996.
[DF01]
Robert DeLine and Manuel Fähndrich. Enforcing high-level protocols in low-level software. In PLDI 2001, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2001 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 59–69, Snowbird, UT, USA, June 20–22, 2001.
[DLNS98]
David L. Detlefs, K. Rustan M. Leino, Greg Nelson, and James B. Saxe. Extended static checking. SRC Research Report 159, Compaq Systems Research Center, December 18, 1998.
[DM05]
Werner Dietl and Peter Müller. Universes: Lightweight ownership for JML. Journal of Object Technology, 4(8):5–32, October 2005.
[ECM06]
Ecma 334: C# language specification, 4th edition. ECMA International, June 2006.
[EFA99]
Martin Elsman, Jeffrey S. Foster, and Alexander Aiken. Carillon — A System to Find Y2K Problems in C Programs, July 30, 1999.
[EM04]
Michael Eichberg and Mira Mezini. Alice: Modularization of middleware using aspect-oriented programming. In 4th International Workshop on Software Engineering and Middleware (SEM04), pages 47–63, Linz, Austria, December 2004.
[Ern07]
Michael D. Ernst. Annotations on Java types: JSR 308 working document. https://checkerframework.org/jsr308/, November 12, 2007.
[Eva96]
David Evans. Static detection of dynamic memory errors. In PLDI 1996, Proceedings of the SIGPLAN '96 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 44–53, Philadelphia, PA, USA, May 21–24, 1996.
[FL03]
Manuel Fähndrich and K. Rustan M. Leino. Declaring and checking non-null types in an object-oriented language. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2003), pages 302–312, Anaheim, CA, USA, November 6–8, 2003.
[FLL+02]
Cormac Flanagan, K. Rustan M. Leino, Mark Lillibridge, Greg Nelson, James B. Saxe, and Raymie Stata. Extended static checking for Java. In PLDI 2002, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2002 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 234–245, Berlin, Germany, June 17–19, 2002.
[FTA02]
Jeffrey S. Foster, Tachio Terauchi, and Alex Aiken. Flow-sensitive type qualifiers. In PLDI 2002, Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN 2002 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pages 1–12, Berlin, Germany, June 17–19, 2002.
[GF05]
David Greenfieldboyce and Jeffrey S. Foster. Type qualifiers for Java. http://www.cs.umd.edu/Grad/scholarlypapers/papers/greenfiledboyce.pdf, August 8, 2005.
[GJSB00]
James Gosling, Bill Joy, Guy Steele, and Gilad Bracha. The Java Language Specification. Addison Wesley, Boston, MA, second edition, 2000.
[GJSB05]
James Gosling, Bill Joy, Guy Steele, and Gilad Bracha. The Java Language Specification. Addison Wesley, Boston, MA, third edition, 2005.
[GPB+06]
Brian Goetz, Tim Peierls, Joshua Bloch, Joseph Bowbeer, David Holmes, and Doug Lea. Java Concurrency in Practice. Addison-Wesley, 2006.
[HK07]
Trevor Harmon and Raymond Klefstad. Toward a unified standard for worst-case execution time annotations in real-time Java. In WPDRTS 2007, Fifteenth International Workshop on Parallel and Distributed Real-Time Systems, Long Beach, CA, USA, March 2007.
[JPLS05]
Bart Jacobs, Frank Piessens, K. Rustan M. Leino, and Wolfram Schulte. Safe concurrency for aggregate objects with invariants. In Proceedings of the Third IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering and Formal Methods, pages 137–147, Koblenz, Germany, September 7–9, 2005.
[JW04]
Rob Johnson and David Wagner. Finding user/kernel pointer bugs with type inference. In 13th USENIX Security Symposium, pages 119–134, San Diego, CA, USA, August 11–13, 2004.
[KT01]
Günter Kniesel and Dirk Theisen. JAC — access right based encapsulation for Java. Software: Practice and Experience, 31(6):555–576, 2001.
[LBR06]
Gary T. Leavens, Albert L. Baker, and Clyde Ruby. Preliminary design of JML: A behavioral interface specification language for Java. ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, 31(3), March 2006.
[LM04]
K. Rustan M. Leino and Peter Müller. Object invariants in dynamic contexts. In ECOOP 2004 — Object-Oriented Programming, 18th European Conference, pages 491–, Oslo, Norway, June 16–18, 2004.
[LP06]
Yi Lu and John Potter. Protecting representation with effect encapsulation. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, pages 359–371, Charleston, SC, USA, January 11–13, 2006.
[LY]
Tim Lindholm and Frank Yellin. The Java Virtual Machine Specification. 3rd edition. To appear.
[Mor06]
Rajiv Mordani. JSR 250: Common annotations for the Java platform. https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=250, May 11, 2006.
[MPHL06]
Peter Müller, Arnd Poetzsch-Heffter, and Gary T. Leavens. Modular invariants for layered object structures. Science of Computer Programming, 62:253–286, October 2006.
[MPPD08]
Chris Male, David Pearce, Alex Potanin, and Constantine Dymnikov. Java bytecode verification for @NonNull types. In Compiler Construction: 14th International Conference, CC 2008, Budapest, Hungary, April 3–4, 2008.
[Mül02]
Peter Müller. Modular Specification and Verification of Object-Oriented Programs. Number 2262 in Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer-Verlag, 2002.
[NVP98]
James Noble, Jan Vitek, and John Potter. Flexible alias protection. In ECOOP '98, the 12th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, pages 158–185, Brussels, Belgium, July 20-24, 1998.
[PAC+07]
Matthew M. Papi, Mahmood Ali, Telmo Luis Correa Jr., Jeff H. Perkins, and Michael D. Ernst. Pluggable type-checking for custom type qualifiers in Java. Technical Report MIT-CSAIL-TR-2007-047, MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, September 17, 2007.
[PBKM00]
Sara Porat, Marina Biberstein, Larry Koved, and Bilba Mendelson. Automatic detection of immutable fields in Java. In CASCON, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, November 13–16, 2000.
[Pec03]
Igor Pechtchanski. A Framework for Optimistic Program Optimization. PhD thesis, New York University, September 2003.
[Pfe92]
Frank Pfenning. Dependent types in logic programming. In Frank Pfenning, editor, Types in Logic Programming, chapter 10, pages 285–311. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992.
[PNCB06]
Alex Potanin, James Noble, Dave Clarke, and Robert Biddle. Generic ownership for generic Java. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2006), pages 311–324, Portland, OR, USA, October 24–26, 2006.
[PØ95]
Jens Palsberg and Peter Ørbæk. Trust in the λ-calculus. In Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Static Analysis, SAS '95, pages 314–329, Glasgow, UK, September 25–27, 1995.
[Pug06]
William Pugh. JSR 305: Annotations for software defect detection. https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=305, August 29, 2006. JSR Review Ballot version.
[STFW01]
Umesh Shankar, Kunal Talwar, Jeffrey S. Foster, and David Wagner. Detecting format string vulnerabilities with type qualifiers. In 10th USENIX Security Symposium, Washington, DC, USA, August 15–17, 2001.
[SW01]
Mats Skoglund and Tobias Wrigstad. A mode system for read-only references in Java. In FTfJP'2001: 3rd Workshop on Formal Techniques for Java-like Programs, Glasgow, Scotland, June 18, 2001.
[TE05]
Matthew S. Tschantz and Michael D. Ernst. Javari: Adding reference immutability to Java. In Object-Oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA 2005), pages 211–230, San Diego, CA, USA, October 18–20, 2005.
[VS97]
Dennis M. Volpano and Geoffrey Smith. A type-based approach to program security. In TAPSOFT '97: Theory and Practice of Software Development, 7th International Joint Conference CAAP/FASE, pages 607–621, Lille, France, April 14–18, 1997.
[Xi98]
Hongwei Xi. Dependent Types in Practical Programming. PhD thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, December 1998.
[XP99]
Hongwei Xi and Frank Pfenning. Dependent types in practical programming. In Proceedings of the 26th Annual ACM SIGPLAN-SIGACT Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, pages 214–227, San Antonio, TX, January 20–22, 1999.
[YSP+98]
Kathy Yelick, Luigi Semenzato, Geoff Pike, Carleton Miyamoto, Ben Liblit, Arvind Krishnamurthy, Paul Hilfinger, Susan Graham, David Gay, Phil Colella, and Alex Aiken. Titanium: A high-performance Java dialect. Concurrency: Practice and Experience, 10(11–13):825–836, September–November 1998.
[ZPA+07]
Yoav Zibin, Alex Potanin, Mahmood Ali, Shay Artzi, Adam Kieżun, and Michael D. Ernst. Object and reference immutability using Java generics. In ESEC/FSE 2007: Proceedings of the 11th European Software Engineering Conference and the 15th ACM SIGSOFT Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering, Dubrovnik, Croatia, September 5–7, 2007.